Most Female Pharaohs Are Not Mentioned in History

Hatshepsut was the most famous female pharaoh, there were several other women who ruled in ancient Egypt, but they are less mentioned in history.

The problem is that they are difficult to trace in history because they either legitimized their rule by presenting themselves as men, as in the case of Hatshepsut, or were called queens, as in the case of Nefertiti, making it unclear whether they ruled alone or with a partner. As a result, the rule of the female pharaohs remains an intriguing historical mystery.

Probably the most famous female pharaoh was Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt for two decades and created many images reflecting her reign. The world-famous bust of Nefertiti made her name known outside of Egyptology. Despite her fame, the evidence for her role as pharaoh is disputed. There's also Cleopatra, the most popular female pharaoh in modern times.

In the long history of ancient Egypt, it was ruled by many more women. However, proving the number of female pharaohs and the extent of their power is a task that often raises more questions than it answers.

Ancient Egyptian researchers have evidence of several more female pharaohs. Tavosret was a mysterious woman who ruled in the 19th century BC. She was buried in the Valley of the Kings, and her influence is clearly evident in the archaeological record. An even more unknown female pharaoh is Neitikert (also called Nitigret or Nitocris), who may have been the first female pharaoh from the 6th Dynasty.

The problem with identifying Neutikert is that the records of her reign present her as a male king. The first Egyptian woman reputed to have risen to the pinnacle of power is Sebekneferu.

The first female pharaoh of whom there is accurate evidence was Sebekneferu, who held the title of Queen of Egypt from 1760 to 1756 BC. The story of her becoming pharaoh is complex. After the death of her father Amenemhat III, there were three logical options to take his place: his stepson (presumably) Amenemhat IV, his other daughter Neferupta, or Sebekneferu. As a result, Amenemhat IV became king and ruled for about ten years before his death. By that time Neferupta had also passed away, leaving Sebekneferu as the rightful successor.

These data give a general chronology of succession to the throne of the XII dynasty ending with Sebekneferu. Although few details have been preserved, the fact that the throne was inherited by Amenemhat IV, who may have been a more distant relative of the previous pharaoh than his two daughters, indicates a preference for male rulers.

But Sebekneferu's story also emphasizes the importance of royal lineage. A vacant throne without a male heir set a clear precedent for Sebekneferu to become ruler. In this case, we can conclude that lineage is more important than the coronation of a male. This is probably how most female pharaohs came to power, being in the right place at the right time and being the only viable option.

The relative equality of women and men in law, society, and religion in ancient Egypt explains why there were female pharaohs. Although most women did not work outside the home, those who did were paid the same wages as their male counterparts. Unlike women in other parts of the ancient world, Egyptian women owned estates, received honors for military campaigns, developed trading businesses, and held top positions in religious and political leadership.

Personified as a goddess, Maat represented order and justice. It was the duty of the pharaoh to worship her, and if Maat was not appeased, chaos ensued. In the absence of a male heir, the appointment of a queen by the pharaoh could prevent cosmic imbalance.

While poorer Egyptian women prioritized motherhood and were considered primarily wives and mothers, wealthy women could play a much larger role in society. Instead of personally running the household, she could manage a team of servants. She probably also had fewer children because the extra labor associated with a large family was unnecessary. Therefore, high-ranking women were able to hold leadership positions, including royal positions.

Although men and women in ancient Egypt were considered equal under the law, the office of king was conferred through the male line. Women who attained the status of pharaoh often adopted masculine features to emulate their predecessors and reinforce legitimacy.

In general, the pharaohs represented themselves using constant imagery to show a continuation of successful Egyptian leadership. This included a regal headdress, a strong masculine body, and a false beard called a millet. Archaeological evidence shows that Hatshepsut often depicted herself with the same masculine features, including the beard. In the above example of the kneeling statue of Hatshepsut, only her face shows more feminine features.

Sometimes this use of standard iconography can make it difficult to distinguish between male and female pharaohs. It is possible that some extant images mistaken for male images actually belonged to forgotten female pharaohs.

Hatshepsut was another queen who became pharaoh by chance. Her reign was necessary to avoid unrest and keep her family on the throne. During the two decades of her reign, Egypt prospered. She placed great emphasis on new construction, so her position as pharaoh is extensively documented.

Nevertheless, the images she used became increasingly masculine throughout her reign. Images from the last years of her reign cannot be distinguished from those of male pharaohs without an identifying inscription.

Another key obstacle to identifying women who wielded absolute power in ancient Egypt is their ambiguous titles. For some women, there is strong evidence that they held sole power, yet they were referred to by titles such as "queen" or "mother of the king". The reason for this phenomenon is that their claim to power was based on their role in the royal family, and these female royal titles were extremely important.

Female pharaohs often held these titles before coming to power, and they could not simply be discarded because they maintained the legitimacy of the entire dynasty. In some cases, the pharaoh was polygamous, and if his son did not survive, a stepson could seize power.

In some unfortunate cases, the pharaoh died while his eldest son was still a young child. The queen was often given the title of regent for her son and honored as the mother of the king. But even when the queen served as regent, in some cases she became pharaoh.

This is how Hatshepsut, who was originally the regent of her two-year-old stepson, came to power. As a member of the royal family, she had to become regent to prevent other powerful people from taking advantage of the young king and usurping power. She partially erased and reshaped previous artwork depicting her as queen to enhance her role as pharaoh. She proclaimed herself the daughter and wife of the god Amun and the true pharaoh, directly communicating with the gods.

In a sense, female pharaohs were used in dangerous times when the line of succession was threatened. The pharaoh had to have direct ties to his predecessor for religious purposes. The pharaoh's family was part of the family of the gods and joined them as a deity after death. Therefore, a woman from the family could temporarily fulfill this role.

Interruption of the lineage was regarded by the Egyptians as a punishment of the gods and a guarantee of unrest. The pharaoh was a religious leader who communicated divine wishes to mortals. Choosing the wrong pharaoh would certainly upset Maat. Not to mention that undesirable groups were more likely to invade if the royal family lost absolute power.

The queen became pharaoh as a last resort to keep the peace. So, in a sense, female pharaohs were attracted only to prevent the fall. Many regent queens did not claim absolute power over Egypt. Several queens declared their autonomy as ruler. Regardless of the scenario or title, many women seized power in ancient Egypt and created evidence of their rule known even thousands of years later.

The difficulties in finding out details about the identity of the pharaohs are not limited to the female gender. The names and deeds of many pharaohs have been lost to history. But between the looted tombs left behind by tomb raiders and the vague understanding of how female rulers became pharaohs, there are clues that point to an intriguing story of female leadership in ancient history.