Travel History: the Invention of the Passport

Ancient and medieval predecessors aside, the modern passport system was created in the 1920s to restrict freedom of movement after World War I.

The history of the passport is complex and long. From ancient China to classical Rome, passport-like documents have been used for thousands of years. However, the predecessor of the modern passport is generally considered to be the "guardian's charter," a medieval document designed to help travelers and merchants confirm their identity in foreign lands.

It first came into use in 1540, when the English Privy Council began issuing travel documents during the reign of Henry VIII. The modern passport, however, is a relatively recent invention. Standardized in 1920 through an agreement at the League of Nations, it has become a necessary document for international travel and at the same time a powerful tool for restricting movement.

The earliest known system regulating the movement of people across borders is the Hukou system (meaning "castle and checkpoint") of ancient China. Dating back to the Warring States period (475-221 BC) and later formalized during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), the Hukou system regulated the control of the movement of people and goods across the empire.

Following the development of the Silk Road, the system required travelers to carry permits indicating their identity, destination, and purpose of travel in order to pass through various checkpoints or guan (passes, or fords). An integral part of this system was the use of documents, mostly written on wood, which have been described by scholars as similar to passports or visas (zhuan).

In the Roman Empire, official travelers received a tractorium (letter) in the name of the emperor, which provided them with assistance and safety on their journey. These documents served as proof of identity and official confirmation that the bearer had received the emperor's approval. Roman citizens enjoyed freedom of movement throughout the empire, so they did not need passports. However, some representatives, such as veterans of the armed forces with the right to vote, received diplomas confirming their citizenship (civitas Romana).

Roman citizenship or Civitas Romana is one of the three highest social and legal statuses of Roman antiquity, which meant the ability to enjoy the full range of legal rights granted by Roman law.

The predecessor of the modern passport is the medieval document of "safe conduct", also known as guidaticum or sauf-conduit. These credentials, which stated the name of the bearer and the purpose of his mission, were issued by monarchs or authorities to provide protection for the traveler.

In medieval Arago-Catalonia, guidaticum facilitated travel and trade between Christian, Jewish, and Muslim merchant communities. Similarly, letters of protection in medieval France were issued to diplomats, merchants, and religious pilgrims.

In England, the earliest mention of safe conduct is found in an Act of Parliament of 1414 during the reign of King Henry V. Collectively, these documents provided diplomatic security and theoretically safe travel under the authority of the monarch who issued them.

By 1540, the English Privy Council under King Henry VIII began officially issuing "passports". The oldest surviving specimen, signed by King Charles I, is dated June 18, 1641. In 1794, the power to issue passports in Britain was transferred to the Secretary of State, an important step towards the creation of the modern passport system.

The concept of a standardized worldwide passport is actually relatively new. While historical documents of "safe conduct" were designed to allow travelers and traders, including potential adversaries, to pass safely through foreign territories, the modern passport came into being after World War I.

The Agreement on the Standardization of Passports, negotiated by the League of Nations in 1920, was intended to address the problem of mass movement of people in the post-war world. The goal was not so much to create a system for world travelers as to create an identity document to facilitate travel restrictions and immigration control.

By 1963, the United Nations concluded that a citizen's freedom of movement was tied to the power of the state that issued the passport. The first international conference on passports discussed the abolition of passports on a worldwide basis. Despite majority agreement with this position, the United States and its allies rejected the proposal, citing "national interest and security".

Today, while the passport remains the primary document for international travel, it also represents the expropriation by the nation-state of individual rights to move freely across international borders without authorization. The paradox of the contemporary passport regime is the promise of mobility amidst surveillance and restrictions.